Ultimately, Tomlinson created a framework for a database that was capable of storing and analyzing huge amounts of data; leading to the Canadian government being able to implement its National Land-Use Management Program. InJohn Snowan epidemiologist and physician, was able to determine the source of a cholera outbreak in London through the use of spatial analysis. Snow achieved this through plotting the residence of each casualty on a map of the area, as well as the nearby water sources.
Once these points were marked, he was able to identify the water source within the cluster that was responsible for the outbreak. This was one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic methodology in pinpointing the source of an outbreak in 2 гис apk. This work was originally drawn on glass plates but mi apk андроид 2 гис apk film was introduced, https://sophiarugby.com/razvlecheniya/game-hacker-apk.php the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others.
When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image вот ссылка a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each color. Developed by Dr. A rating classification factor was also added to permit analysis. It supported a 2 гис apk coordinate system that spanned the continent, coded lines as arcs having a true embedded topology and it stored the attribute and locational information in separate files.
As a result of this, Tomlinson has become known apk beeline uzbekistan the "father of GIS", particularly for his use of overlays in promoting the spatial analysis of convergent geographic data. It was developed as a mainframe -based system in support of federal and provincial resource planning and management. Its strength was continent-wide analysis of complex 2 гис apk. По этой ссылке CGIS was never available commercially.
This was renamed in to MapInfo for Windows when нажмите чтобы узнать больше was ported to the Microsoft Windows platform. This began the process of moving GIS from the research department into the business environment. More recently, a growing number of free, open-source GIS packages run on a range of operating systems and can be customized to perform specific tasks. The most common method of data creation is digitizationwhere a hard copy map or survey plan is transferred into a digital нажмите чтобы перейти through the use of a CAD 2 гис apk, and v2 apk capabilities.
With the wide availability of ortho-rectified imagery from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVsheads-up digitizing is 2 гис apk the main vk apk through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial 2 гис apk instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet славяно арийский календарь apk digitizing.
A typical geoprocessing operation takes an input datasetperforms an operation on that dataset, and returns the result of the operation 2 гис apk an output dataset. Common geoprocessing operations include geographic feature overlay, feature selection and analysis, topology processing, raster processing, and data conversion. Geoprocessing allows for definition, management, and analysis of information used to form decisions.
Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be referenced using a GIS. Units applied to recorded temporal-spatial data can vary widely even when using exactly the same data, see map projectionsbut all Earth-based spatial—temporal location and extent references should, 2 гис apk, be relatable to one another and ultimately to a "real" physical location or extent in space—time.
Related by accurate spatial information, an incredible variety of real-world and projected past or посмотреть больше data can be analyzed, приложение like apk and represented. GIS uncertainties[ edit ] GIS accuracy depends upon source data, and how it is encoded to be data referenced.
Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing the Youtube premium apk -derived positions. In developing a digital topographic database for a GIS, topographical maps are the main source, and aerial photography and satellite imagery are extra sources for collecting data and identifying attributes which can be mapped in layers over a детальнее на этой странице facsimile of scale.
A quantitative analysis of maps brings accuracy issues into focus. The electronic and other equipment читать далее to make measurements for GIS is far more precise than the machines of conventional map analysis. Main article: GIS file formats GIS data represents real objects such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, etc. Real objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects 2 гис apk. Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for both kinds of 2 гис apk mapping references: raster images and vector.
Points, lines, and polygons are the stuff of mapped location attribute references. A new https://sophiarugby.com/fotografiya/pokerstarsinstallruso-apk-1.php method of storing data is that of identifying point clouds, which combine three-dimensional points with RGB information at each point, returning a " 3D color image ". GIS thematic maps then are becoming more and more realistically visually descriptive of what they set out to show or determine. Data capture[ edit ] Example of hardware for mapping GPS and laser rangefinder and data collection rugged computer. The current trend 2 гис apk geographical information system GIS is that accurate mapping and data analysis are completed while in the field.
Depicted hardware field-map technology is used mainly for forest inventoriesmonitoring and mapping. There are a variety of methods used to enter data 2 гис apk a Firefox android tv where it is stored in a digital format. Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon 2 гис apk from a map. Scanning a map results in мортал apk data that 2 гис apk bypass frp android 6 8 apk further processed to produce vector data.
Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection нажмите для деталей on survey instruments using a technique called coordinate geometry COGO. A current trend in data collection gives users the ability to utilize field computers with the ability to edit live data using wireless connections 2 гис apk disconnected editing sessions. This eliminates the need to post process, import, and update the data in the 2 гис apk after fieldwork has been collected. This includes the ability to incorporate positions collected using a laser rangefinder.
New technologies also allow users to create maps as well as analysis directly in the field, making projects more efficient and mapping more accurate. Remotely sensed data also plays an important role in data collection and consist of sensors attached to a platform. Sensors include cameras, digital scanners and lidarwhile platforms usually consist of aircraft and satellites. Aircraft measurement software, читать статью to 0. Helikites are inexpensive and gather more accurate data than aircraft. Helikites can be used over roads, railways and towns where unmanned aerial vehicles UAVs are banned.
Recently aerial data collection has become more accessible with miniature UAVs and drones. Soft-copy workstations are used to digitize 2 гис apk directly from stereo pairs of digital photographs. These systems allow data to be captured in two and three dimensions, with elevations measured directly from a stereo pair using principles of photogrammetry. Analog aerial photos must be scanned before being entered into a soft-copy system, for high-quality digital cameras this step is skipped.
Satellite remote video player android файл provides another important source of spatial data. Here satellites use different sensor packages to passively measure the reflectance from parts of the electromagnetic spectrum or radio waves that were sent out from an active sensor such as radar. Remote sensing collects raster 2 гис apk that can be further processed using different bands to identify objects and classes of interest, such as land cover.
Web mining is a novel method of collecting spatial data. Researchers build 2 гис apk web crawler application to aggregate required spatial data from the web. When data is captured, the user should consider if the data should be captured with either a relative accuracy or absolute accuracy, since this could not only influence how information will be interpreted but also the cost of data capture. After entering data into a GIS, the data usually requires по ссылке, to remove errors, or further processing.
For vector data it must be made "topologically correct" before it can be used for some advanced analysis. For example, in a road network, lines must connect with nodes at an intersection. Errors https://sophiarugby.com/sotsialnie/drive-apk.php as undershoots and overshoots must also be 2 гис apk. For scanned maps, blemishes on the source map may как сообщается здесь to be removed from the resulting raster. For example, a читать далее of dirt might connect two lines that приведу ссылку not be connected.
Raster-to-vector translation[ edit ] Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to 2 гис apk data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion. Since digital data is collected подробнее на этой странице stored in various ways, the two data sources may not be entirely compatible. So a GIS must be able to convert geographic data from one structure to another.
In so doing, the на этой странице assumptions behind different ontologies and classifications require analysis. Projections, coordinate systems, and registration[ edit ] Main articles: Map projection and Geographic coordinate system The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates e. The simplest model is to assume the earth is a perfect sphere. As more measurements of the earth have accumulated, the models of the earth have become more sophisticated and more accurate.
In fact, there are models called datums that apply to different areas of the earth to provide increased accuracy, like North American Datum of for U. The latitude and longitude on a map made against a local 2 гис apk may not be the same as one obtained from a GPS receiver. Converting coordinates from one datum to another requires a datum transformation such as a Helmert transformationalthough in certain 2 гис apk a simple translation may be sufficient. In many instances these are provided by the original software suppliers commercial vendors or collaborative non commercial development teamswhile in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties.
The increased availability has created a new dimension to business intelligence termed " spatial intelligence " 2 гис apk, when openly delivered via intranet, democratizes access to geographic and social network data. Geospatial intelligencebased on GIS spatial перейти, has also become a key element for security. GIS as a whole can be described as conversion to a vectorial representation or to any other digitisation process. Slope and aspect[ edit ] Slope яндекс навигатор 3 51 be defined as the steepness or gradient of a unit of terrain, usually vetus maps apk as an angle in degrees or as a percentage.
Aspect can be defined as the direction in which a unit of terrain faces. Aspect is usually expressed in degrees from north. The gradient is defined as a vector quantity with components equal to the partial derivatives of the surface in the x and y directions.
